<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">The cognitive-developmental approach is primarily concerned with thinking and reasoning, as opposed to behaviour or feelings.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Thinking and reasoning do not merely become more sophisticated with increasing experience, but the type of logic the child is capable of differs entirely according to its age.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">A major influence on human behaviour, feelings and thinking is the type of reasoning the person is capable of.</li></ul>

Cognitive-Developmental Psychology

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Like behavioral and cognitive psychology, behavioural genetics and evolutionary psychology are seen as pure-science approaches.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Genes affect physical characteristics, and the interaction of these characteristics with the environment can influence psychological characteristics.</li></ul>

Genetic Influences on Behaviour (1/2)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Like other biological approaches to psychology, neurophysiology is a science.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Neurophysiology emphasises the importance of physiological processes in affecting behaviour, thinking, and feelings.</li></ul>

Neurophysiology (1/2)

Whereas behavioural psychology is most concerned with observable behaviour, psychodynamic psychology with emotion and cognitive psychology with thinking, neurophysiology is concerned primarily with physiological activity.

Neurophysiology (2/2)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Some paradigms are most popular in the field of counselling, and psychodynamic approaches tend to be favoured by psychiatrists and social workers rather than by psychologists.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Some psychologists are eclectic and borrow freely from different approaches whilst others work purely with one approach.</li></ul>

Introduction (3/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">The technical term to describe how well a study can be applied to real-life is ecological validity.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Some psychologists who adopt a purely cognitive approach can ignore other important psychological factors other than the ways we process information. This is called cognitive reductionism.</li></ul>

Cognitive Psychology (4/4)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Operant conditioning techniques can be used to help rehabilitate people such as long-term psychiatric patients who have been out of contact with “normal” society for a while.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Behavioural approach places great emphasis on testable concepts and rigorous experimental research.</li></ul>

Behavioural Psychology (3/3)

<ul><li>The major influence on human behaviour is learning from our environment.</li><li>There is a little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals, therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as on humans.</li></ul>

Behavioural Psychology (2/4)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Relationships (especially parenting) are of primary importance in determining how we feel and behave.</li></ul>

Psychodinamic Psychology (1/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Our behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by the meaning of events to the unconscious mind, and by unconscious motives.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Looks for information in dreams, symptoms, irrational behaviour, and what patients say in therapy.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Freud believed that the most important of the defence mechanisms was repression.</li></ul>

Psychodinamic Psychology (2/3)

<ul><li>A popular definition of psychology → the science of mind and behaviour.</li><li>There are 6 broad theoretical approaches to psychology, each of which focuses on different aspects of psychological phenomena, such as behaviour, emotion, and thinking.</li></ul>

Introduction (1/3)

Some ideas from all of the main theoretical approaches are widely accepted in psychology. Thus it is not only behaviourists that believe in reinforcement; not only biologists that accept the importance of genetics; and so on.

Introduction (2/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Albert Bandura → In order to learn by vicarious experience, we must process the information about the consequences of people’s actions and come to logical conclusions about whether we should copy the behaviour.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Psychologists can use classical conditioning techniques to reduce or remove the symptoms of phobias; or to helps to remove unwanted behaviours, such as pedophilia.</li></ul>

Behavioural Psychology (2/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion.</li></ul>

Behavioural Psychology (1/3)

<ul><li>People are motivated by the wish to grow and fulfill their potential.</li><li>People can choose what they want to be, and know what is best for them.</li><li>We are influences by how we feel about ourselves, which in turn results from how we are treated by others.</li></ul>

Humanistic Psychology (1/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">The aim of humanistic psychology is to help people choose what they want and help them fulfil their potential.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">One major difference between humanistic counsellors and other therapists is that they refer to those in therapy as “clients”, not “patients”.</li></ul>

Humanistic Psychology (2/3)

Maslow distinguished between D-needs (deficiency needs) which result from requirements for food, rest, safety, etc. and B-needs (being needs) which derive from our wish to fulfil our potential. We cannot strive towards our B-needs until our D-needs have been met.

Humanistic Psychology (3/3)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">The major influence on human behaviour is how the mind operates.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Like a computer we are influenced by the ways in which our brains are “hard-wired” and by ways in which we have been “programmed” by experience.</li></ul>

Cognitive Psychology (2/4)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Social psychology is interested in all the ways in which people impact on one another.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">The major influence on people’s behaviour is the social situation they are in.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Social approaches are not tied to a particular research method.</li></ul>

Social Psychology (1/2)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Like behaviourists, cognitive psychologists see psychology as a pure science.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Whereas behaviourists are interested primarily in behaviour, and psychodynamic and humanistic psychologists are interested primarily in emotion, cognitive psychologists are primarily interested in thinking and related mental processes such as memory.</li></ul>

Cognitive Psychology (1/4)

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Whereas all the approaches we have looked at so far emphasise the role of the environment on determining the differences between people, behavioural genetics emphasises the role of genetic as well as environmental influences.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Evolutionary psychology also emphasises the importance of genetic influences, but on human similarity rather than difference.</li></ul>

Genetic Influences on Behaviour (2/2)

Here we shall consider two reasons why we might forget from long-term memory. <ul><li class="ql-align-justify">Cue-dependency is a generally accepted phenomenon and probably the most common season for forgetting things.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">Repression, by contrast, is much more controversial and probably occurs rather less frequently.</li></ul>

Cognitive Psychology (3/4)

The three-stage process in social identity theory:<ol><li class="ql-align-justify">In the first stage, social categorisation, we identify ourselves and other people as members of social categories.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">In the second stage, social identification, we adopt the identity of the group we have categorised ourselves as belonging to.</li><li class="ql-align-justify">The final stage is social comparison. Once we have categorised ourselves as part of or group and identified with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups.</li></ol>

Social Psychology (2/2)

The process whereby the underlying wish is translated into the manifest content is called dream-work. The purpose of dream-work is to transform the forbidden wish into a non-threatening form, thus reducing anxiety and allowing us to continue sleeping.

Psychodinamic Psychology (3/3)

Psychologists use a range of principles and theories, all of which view the person and the study of the person in very different ways. Theoretical Approaches in Psychology introduces and outlines the six main approaches and considers how each has helped psychologists understand human behaviour, thought and feeling. The Routledge Modular Psychology series is a completely new approach to introductory level psychology, tailor-made for the new modular style of teaching. Each book covers a topic in more detail than any large textbook can, allowing teacher and student to select material exactly to suit any particular course or project. Especially written for those students new to higher-level study, whether at school, college or university, the books include the following designed features to help with technique: <ul> <li>Practice essays with specialist commentary to show how to achieve a higher grade</li> <li>Chapter summaries and summaries of key research</li> <li>Glossary and further reading</li> <li>Progress and review exercises.</li></ul>

Cognitive Psychology (4/4)

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