Pseudoscience, Cults, and Social Media: Misinformation in the Modern Age

The philosophers John Dupré and Mimo Puchi argue that pseudoscience can be thought of as a cluster concept, in which different pseudosciences fulfill different criteria to a greater or lesser extent.

Martin Manner has proposed a set of criteria for determining whether something is a pseudoscience, such as whether the results of experiments can be independently reproduced, whether the theories make specific predictions, and whether they use valid argumentative structures.

Epistemically closed groups ignore or invalidate alternative perspectives or evidence that contradict their beliefs.

• They favor people that share their ideas and show low tolerance of dissenting opinions.
• Statements or ideas are less critically scrutinized within the group and they have many taboo subjects. They cling to their beliefs despite new evidence refuting them.
• They follow authorities.

A parasocial relationship is a one-sided bond with a person you regularly see online, such as an influencer.

• They can alleviate loneliness, but can also become inappropriate.
• Influencers use authenticity and self-revelation to build trust. Trust can lead followers to view the influencer's advice as reliable, even in areas without expertise.
• The emotional connection can lead to loyalty and defence of the influencer against criticism, which can contribute to the epistemic cohesion of the community.
• Parasocial relationships can foster strong loyalties that suppress potentially dissenting opinions.

Cults represent an extreme example of epistemic closure. In cults, believers are encouraged to cut off friends and family who do not join and preemptively discredit evidence that contradicts the cult's beliefs.

Influencers and social media can unintentionally promote epistemically closed systems through the formation of parasocial relationships.

The isolation of dissenters in the digital space can lead to a strengthening of extreme opinions. A strong sense of belonging in online groups, including conspiracy groups, can also contribute to epistemic closure.

Efforts are needed to open up epistemically closed groups. Important strategies are:

• Strict scrutiny of ideas for precision, logic and reasoning.
• Willingness to revise old ideas in the light of new findings.
• Promoting a free and open exchange of ideas without fear of consequences.
• Avoidance of political motivation in hypotheses.
• Unbiased evaluation of research findings.
• Questioning the reasons for trusting authorities.
• Examination of taboo subjects and their reasons.
• Active engagement with dissenters.
• Strengthening awareness of peer pressure.