Mental immunity is a psychological theory that is also known as cognitive immunology.People with a healthy mental immune system are more likely to detect misinformation. A strong cognitive immune system can also help spot bad ideas at an earlier stage, so you may avoid wasting time, energy, or money.

Mental immunity

The mental immune system is believed to function in a similar way to the body’s physical immune system.<ul><li>The purpose of the physical system of immune cells is to detect pathogens including bacteria and viruses, so that they can be eradicated from our bloodstream and organ systems before they have a chance to cause damage.</li><li>Similarly, a healthy mental immune system will detect harmful or incorrect information that enters our mind, so that it can be recognised as such and then promptly rejected.</li><li>Mental immunity research has deep roots dating back to the 1950s. </li></ul>

A mental immune system

<ul><li>Build awareness of misinformation. Remember that misinformation is common, and train yourself to immediately interrogate the information or data you are presented with.</li><li>Develop healthy meta-beliefs. A meta-belief is a belief that one holds following a thorough reasoning process or cognitive interrogation to check the validity of the belief.</li><li>Practice self-reflection. If this process of reflection indicates that you are drawn to the same news sources, or solely rely on influencers or social media platforms for your updates, your information diet may not be varied enough.</li></ul>

How to strengthen your mental immune system

Every day, a new video goes “viral”, and an “infectious” idea starts spreading. Mental immunity is a psychological theory that is also known as cognitive immunology.

Understand yourself and those around you.

psychology

Psychology

personaldevelopment

Personal Development

problemsolving

Problem Solving

How developing mental immunity can protect us from bad ideas

“These, then, are the ten rules of effective communication, all summarized in single words: simplicity, brevity, credibility, consistency, novelty, sound, aspiration, visualization, questing, and context.”

“Remember, everything you need to say should be up front. All that you want to say can come later.”

You can have the best message in the world, but the person on the receiving end will always understand it through the filter of their own emotions, preconceptions, prejudices, and preexisting beliefs.

It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear

<ul><li>Simplicity: Use small words</li><li>Brevity: Use short sentences</li><li>Credibility: Be credible in every word or statement you make</li><li>Consistency:  Iterate the same message, over and over</li><li>Novelty: breed excitement</li><li>Sound: the texture of your words matters</li><li>Aspirational: people forget what you say but not how you made them feel</li><li>Imagery: Visualize, the word “imagine” is an incredibly powerful tool</li><li>Question: Question everything, ask questions and provide the solution</li><li>Context:give background to why you’re here and why people should bother to listen to you – give relevance to the situation.</li></ul>

10 rules for successful communication

<ul><li>Never use a metaphor, simile, or another figure of speech that you are used to seeing in print.</li><li>Never use a long word where a short one will do.</li><li>If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.</li><li>Never use the passive where you can use the active.</li><li>Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.</li><li>Don’t assume that people know what you do, or are even aware of you.</li></ul>

Some “Don’ts” in communication

The single most-read portion after the opening paragraph is the postscript. The reason is easy to understand: <ul><li>The average reader looks to the P.S. to determine whether or not it is in fact a personal letter, and whether that letter has any relevance to his or her life. </li><li>If it isn’t, and if it doesn’t, the average person won’t read anything else. </li></ul>Make the postscript as human and emotional as possible.

The effectiveness of the postscript

Words have different meanings to different people. For example, “welfare” and “assistance to the poor” essentially mean the same thing. However, if you ask the citizens whether or not we are spending too much on welfare (23%) or assistance for the poor (68%), it’s clear that these two terms hold differing connotations. So while “welfare” brings up images of “welfare queens” and wasteful government spending, “assistance to the poor” reminds people of charity and Christian compassion.

Similar words can prompt different reactions among different people 

Effective communication isn’t about the objective meaning of your words, but rather how people understand them. It’s essential to consider their preconceptions, especially their beliefs and fears. One example is George Orwell who knew this well and used it in his book 1984. He wrote a passage that described Room 101 as a place where one confronts her greatest fears. Since everyone has different personal nightmares, Room 101 became associated with each reader’s individual nightmare.

Effective communication is about considering your audience

“Words that work, whether fiction or reality, not only explain but also motivate. They cause you to think as well as act. They trigger emotion as well as understanding.”

<ul><li>Consequences: What will personalize, and what will dramatize the result of your actions?</li><li>Impact: How can you utilize this word to make your listeners feel as if there will be a measurable difference?</li><li>Diplomacy and Dialogue: Use them to ease tension, to establish a sense of normalcy or goodwill.</li><li>Reliability: There are many people who believe that the reliability of something is more important than any other factor.</li><li>Mission: Your listener wants to know the how, what and why. </li><li>Commitment: What kind of personal mission are you going to undertake? Use commitment in the terms of personal commitment.</li></ul>

Important words

The nation's premier communications expert shares his wisdom on how the words we choose can change the course of business, of politics, and of life in this country In Words That Work, Luntz offers a behind-the-scenes look at how the tactical use of words and phrases affects what we buy, who we vote for, and even what we believe in. With chapters like "The Ten Rules of Successful Communication" and "The 21 Words and Phrases for the 21st Century," he examines how choosing the right words is essential. Nobody is in a better position to explain than Frank Luntz: He has used his knowledge of words to help more than two dozen Fortune 500 companies grow. Hell tell us why Rupert Murdoch's six-billion-dollar decision to buy DirectTV was smart because satellite was more cutting edge than "digital cable," and why pharmaceutical companies transitioned their message from "treatment" to "prevention" and "wellness." If you ever wanted to learn how to talk your way out of a traffic ticket or talk your way into a raise, this book's for you.

communication

Communication

books

Books

The nation's premier communications expert shares his wisdom on how the words we choose can change the course of business, of politics, and of life in this country In Words That Work, Luntz offers a behind-the-scenes look at how the tactical use of words and phrases affects what we buy, who we vote for, and even what we believe in. With chapters like "The Ten Rules of Successful Communication" and "The 21 Words and Phrases for the 21st Century," he examines how choosing the right words is essential. Nobody is in a better position to explain than Frank Luntz: He has used his knowledge of words to help more than two dozen Fortune 500 companies grow. Hell tell us why Rupert Murdoch's six-billion-dollar decision to buy DirectTV was smart because satellite was more cutting edge than "digital cable," and why pharmaceutical companies transitioned their message from "treatment" to "prevention" and "wellness." If you ever wanted to learn how to talk your way out of a traffic ticket or talk your way into a raise, this book's for you.

Dr. Frank Luntz

Words That Work

You can change your mindset and you can change your behavior that is the two most important things that require changing we are going to discuss mindset

Two Main Ways To Get Better At Speaking 

Public speaking doesn’t mean that we aren’t nurvous rather it means that what we’re about to do is important

#Anxiety And Nurvousness Are Not Signs On Troubles

When you get the butterflies in your stomach it reminds you that what you are about to say is important to you

Your Only Half As Nurvous As You Think The Other Is Excitement 

Unless you do something to show your nurvousness people don’t see your nurvousness as you feel as Nurvous

You Do Not Look As Nurvous As You Feel 

You are only Nurvous about 60 seconds it doesn’t last that long

The Spike Of Nurvousness Last 60 Seconds

They are not a barrier to doing an outstanding job you can overcome it. Being scared is not a barrier

Accept That Anxiety And Nurvousness Are Not A Barrier 

No one is looking for your downside everyone wants you to do well. 90% of listeners are sympathetic

Assume That Everyone Is Rooting For You 

Do you feel anxious when speaking or meeting someone new? Here are 6 Mindset tips to deal with social anxiety 

Here are 6 mindset tips to reduce your Public Speaking Anxiety by 50% (Part 1). When you learn how to handle your fear of public speaking, you will feel more confident in yourself and your message and ultimately be more persuasive. Get a Download pdf Confident Public Speaking: http://bit.ly/2M1NfVE-SpeakingTips Watch Part 2: 6 Behavioral Tips to Reduce Speaking Anxiety: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r47cctUxUzM ALEX’S CLASSES AT COMMUNICATION COACH ACADEMY: Essential Professional Communication Skills: http://bit.ly/essentialcommskills Effective Listening Skills for Leaders: http://bit.ly/listeningskillsforleaders Become More Clear, Concise, & Confident: http://bit.ly/clearconciseconfident The Art of Persuasive Communication for Beginners: http://bit.ly/persuasionforbeginners Developing Stakeholder Relationships for Effective Team Leadership: http://bit.ly/stakeholderrelationships Present Like a Pro (Intermediate Public Speaking): http://bit.ly/2zmDM2W ALEX’S CLASSES AT SKILLSHARE (Affiliate): How to Have a Conversation with Anyone: https://skl.sh/2PVYDkl Effective Listening Skills for Leaders: https://skl.sh/2GnIRMR Public Speaking: How to Open and Close Like a Boss: https://skl.sh/2ykPJX3 Public Speaking: Confident Delivery Skills: https://skl.sh/38usFFe Become More Clear, Concise, & Confident: https://skl.sh/36m6dxO The Art of Persuasive Communication for Beginners: https://skl.sh/2RNY4wt Developing Stakeholder Relationships for Effective Team Leadership: https://skl.sh/2XapBuL Courageous Communication Strategies for Leaders: https://skl.sh/3di1vEX Communication Coach, this channel, helps rising leaders like you increase your impact and lead your teams with more excellence. The channel focuses on communication skills for leaders, presentation skills, group and team skills, and conversation skills. If you're looking for self-paced communication skills training, this is the channel for you.

Here are 6 mindset tips to reduce your Public Speaking Anxiety by 50% (Part 1). When you learn how to handle your fear of public speaking, you will feel more confident in yourself and your message and ultimately be more persuasive. Get a Download pdf Confident Public Speaking: https://www.alexanderlyon.com/
free-resources

Watch Part 2: 6 Behavioral Tips to Reduce Speaking Anxiety: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r47cctUxUzM

See Alex's New Book on Amazon (affiliate): https://amzn.to/3XEmOaY

Visit the Communication Coach Academy: https://www.alexanderlyon.com/

ALEX’S CLASSES AT SKILLSHARE (Affiliate):
How to Have a Conversation with Anyone: https://skl.sh/2PVYDkl
Effective Listening Skills for Leaders: https://skl.sh/2GnIRMR 
Public Speaking: How to Open and Close Like a Boss: https://skl.sh/2ykPJX3
Public Speaking: Confident Delivery Skills: https://skl.sh/38usFFe 
Become More Clear, Concise, & Confident: https://skl.sh/36m6dxO
The Art of Persuasive Communication for Beginners: https://skl.sh/2RNY4wt 
Courageous Communication Strategies for Leaders: https://skl.sh/3di1vEX

Communication Coach, this channel, helps rising leaders like you increase your impact and lead your teams with more excellence. The channel focuses on communication skills for leaders, presentation skills, group and team skills, and conversation skills. If you're looking for self-paced communication skills training, this is the channel for you.

Welcome! I made this channel to provide communication skills training to help professionals and emerging leaders increase their impact and lead their teams with excellence. 

I've done workshops, presentations, and consulting for organizations for 20+ years. I'm a full-time tenured full Professor at a public college in New York. I publish original research and I'm working on my second book. I earned a Ph.D. in Communication (2003) from CU Boulder. 

With your help, I currently sponsor 8 children through Compassion International with proceeds from the channel. 

THE JOURNEY

Started: 5/30/16
100 Subscribers: 10/5/16
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20,000: 4/23/19
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100,000: 2/13/21 (It took 4 years, 9 months, & 14 days to reach 100k subs & 202 videos)
200,000: 10/23/21
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400, 000: 9/19/22

Note: Alex is not accepting any new coaching or new speaking clients. Enjoy the videos and feel free to take a look at his online classes.



Communication Coach Alexander Lyon

Public Speaking Anxiety Tips: 6 Mindset Tips

While it’s okay to be cautious about threats in your surroundings, it’s equally important to look at the rewards of proceding if you wish to protect your mental health.Being overly cautious will lead you to associate cues in your surroundings with potential sources of harm rather than pleasure, also known as “attention bias”.

Don’t let yourself be too consumed by anxiety.

If you experience high attention bias in your daily life, you’d look suspiciously at the faces and movements of people who approach you, rather than, for example, the cuddly stuffed animals on the rack in the gift shop.

The Effects of Attention Bias

Having previous experiences in common environments which could cause distress is perfectly normal, and a valid reason to develop attention bias. At the same time, though, is it possible to let down your guard just a little in terms of your level of worry? If you try this in stages, you might be surprised at just how much better you feel.

Attention bias is normal.

New research shows how to tell whether you're just too suspicious.

health

Health

mentalhealth

Mental Health

9 Signs You May Be Too Tuned in to Threat

the following article will shed light on what solving methods are useful and which behavior will help to achieve them

Introduction

• Less effectiveare forced solving or withdrawed solving - (command based) negotiating doesnt solves any conflict, it hardens the confrontation	• Collaborationcan be effective when theres no one forced or withdrawed	• Smoothingis not clearly less or more effective, played down differences can block solution finding for a temporary ease of the situation. on the other side it can be used to connect with the conflict counterpart emotionally. if one makes sure to trigger only positive emotions, it can possibly lead to a compromise.

Methods

Speed & Volume<ol><li>Slow Speed seems dumber while Fast Speed implicates not knowing something well</li><li>Low Volume sounds as you are unsure and High Volume can possibly provoke someone (dominant)</li></ol>

Voice

<ol><li>Try to use positive words, every word will have a little emotional impact that influences how competent you seem.</li><li>Replace forcing elements with less agressive ones. "We must" - "We should"</li><li>Show your counterpart that you understood his feelings and offer discussion on that part. "What do you think could help to be more relaxing instead of creating anger?"</li><li>Critical Points in your discussion can get softer when you use unspecific descriptions of ones identity - "Most people would find it difficult that...."</li></ol>

Vocabulary

leadershipandmanagement

Leadership & Management

Effective Conflict Behaviour

To save one is to save the world.

There are people in the world who have gone through poverty and pain and are still willing to give to people who need help, because those people will remember your kindness and return it to you.If you are in a tough situation, do not let it limit your relationships, but motivate it.

If you are in need, give others what they need.

I just finished reading this book for a class project, and it really changed my perspective on the Nazi Germany era and the community which formed within its victims.

The #1 International Bestseller & New York Times Bestseller This beautiful, illuminating tale of hope and courage is based on interviews that were conducted with Holocaust survivor and Auschwitz-Birkenau tattooist Ludwig (Lale) Sokolov—an unforgettable love story in the midst of atrocity. “The Tattooist of Auschwitz is an extraordinary document, a story about the extremes of human behavior existing side by side: calculated brutality alongside impulsive and selfless acts of love. I find it hard to imagine anyone who would not be drawn in, confronted and moved. I would recommend it unreservedly to anyone, whether they’d read a hundred Holocaust stories or none.”—Graeme Simsion, internationally-bestselling author of The Rosie Project In April 1942, Lale Sokolov, a Slovakian Jew, is forcibly transported to the concentration camps at Auschwitz-Birkenau. When his captors discover that he speaks several languages, he is put to work as a Tätowierer (the German word for tattooist), tasked with permanently marking his fellow prisoners. Imprisoned for over two and a half years, Lale witnesses horrific atrocities and barbarism—but also incredible acts of bravery and compassion. Risking his own life, he uses his privileged position to exchange jewels and money from murdered Jews for food to keep his fellow prisoners alive. One day in July 1942, Lale, prisoner 32407, comforts a trembling young woman waiting in line to have the number 34902 tattooed onto her arm. Her name is Gita, and in that first encounter, Lale vows to somehow survive the camp and marry her. A vivid, harrowing, and ultimately hopeful re-creation of Lale Sokolov's experiences as the man who tattooed the arms of thousands of prisoners with what would become one of the most potent symbols of the Holocaust, The Tattooist of Auschwitz is also a testament to the endurance of love and humanity under the darkest possible conditions.

artsandculture

Society, Arts & Culture

The #1 International Bestseller & New York Times BestsellerThis beautiful, illuminating tale of hope and courage is based on interviews that were conducted with Holocaust survivor and Auschwitz-Birkenau tattooist Ludwig (Lale) Sokolov—an unforgettable love story in the midst of atrocity.“The Tattooist of Auschwitz is an extraordinary document, a story about the extremes of human behavior existing side by side: calculated brutality alongside impulsive and selfless acts of love. I find it hard to imagine anyone who would not be drawn in, confronted and moved. I would recommend it unreservedly to anyone, whether they’d read a hundred Holocaust stories or none.”—Graeme Simsion, internationally-bestselling author of The Rosie ProjectIn April 1942, Lale Sokolov, a Slovakian Jew, is forcibly transported to the concentration camps at Auschwitz-Birkenau. When his captors discover that he speaks several languages, he is put to work as a Tätowierer (the German word for tattooist), tasked with permanently marking his fellow prisoners.Imprisoned for over two and a half years, Lale witnesses horrific atrocities and barbarism—but also incredible acts of bravery and compassion. Risking his own life, he uses his privileged position to exchange jewels and money from murdered Jews for food to keep his fellow prisoners alive.One day in July 1942, Lale, prisoner 32407, comforts a trembling young woman waiting in line to have the number 34902 tattooed onto her arm. Her name is Gita, and in that first encounter, Lale vows to somehow survive the camp and marry her.A vivid, harrowing, and ultimately hopeful re-creation of Lale Sokolov's experiences as the man who tattooed the arms of thousands of prisoners with what would become one of the most potent symbols of the Holocaust, The Tattooist of Auschwitz is also a testament to the endurance of love and humanity under the darkest possible conditions.

Heather Morris

The Tattooist of Auschwitz

Buyers don’t make rational decisions; rather, they make emotional decisions and then justify those by rationalizing them after the fact. This is true even for business customers, who have to use spreadsheets and numbers to support their decisions.

Man Is Not A Rational Animal; He Is A Rationalizing Animal

In the 1950s, Dr. Eric Berne developed the theory of transactional analysis to better understand how people communicate. According to the theory, people have three ego states that influence their behavior during social interactions: the adult, the child, and the parent.

The Adult, The Child And The Parent

The salesman David H. Sandler, together with a psychologist colleague, used some of the theory of transactional analysis to develop Sandler Training. According to the Sandler Selling System, a buying prospect must be emotionally involved in the sale; the “pain” of not having the product has to affect them on an emotional level.

The Pain Of Not Having The Product

When we make buying decisions, we like to think that our ego’s “adult” state is the one that’s working the hardest, that the logical, analytical, rational part of our behavioral framework weighs both sides of the argument and comes back with a solution. However, Sandler recognized that neither the “adult” nor the “parent” state is at work until the “child” wants the product. Many of our buying decisions originate in the ego’s child state, where our inner 6-year-old tells us they want something without delay.

It’s Always The Child That Asks For Things

There are more sales techniques, methodologies, and frameworks than one could count. Most of them probably work when they are correctly applied, and then there are some that might even hurt the business rather than help it. In the end, they are like exercise—the best approach is the one that works for you.

Trial And Error

Everything in life is sales. Parents sell their kids on going to bed. Spouses sell their partners on mowing the lawn or putting the cat out. Appealing to a “consumer's” inner child and applying a trial-by-error approach are two ways to make sales more effectively.

Businesses aren’t rational customers—they just look like it.

marketingandsales

Marketing & Sales

business

Business

product

Product & Design

Sales as Art and as Science

1. Seeing an old friend2. Hearing a song that reminds you of your past3. A bit of good news for a loved one/friend4. Getting a thank you from someone5. Doing something that makes someone else laugh/smile6. Eating comfort food7. Getting into bed with freshly washed sheets8. Finding a ten pound note in an old pair of jeans9. Looking back at old photographs10. Seeing a funny video online

REVEALED: The top 50 things most likely to make YOU smile

11. Winning a tenner on the lottery12. Walks in the country13. Getting a nice message from a loved one14. Waking up on a sunny day15. Sitting in the sun16. Cuddles17. Listening to your favourite song18. Booking a holiday19. Landing at the holiday airport20. Being surprised with flowers or chocolates

21. Someone offering an elderly person their seat on the bus/train22. Someone giving you their car parking ticket when you arrive in a car park23. Fitting in to a pair of jeans you thought were too small24. Finding a bargain in the sales25. Old people holding hands26. Someone telling you you’ve lost weight27. Bumping into someone you haven’t seen for ages28. Getting a quiet moment to myself29. Chocolate30. The smell of freshly baked bread

31. Sunday dinners32. Finding out your children have done well at school33. People carrying their babies34. Making a new friend35. Hearing your child say their first words/smile36. Waking up to find out it has snowed overnight37. Driving a car with the window down on a sunny day38. Finding out someone likes you39. Getting a new hair-do40. A good hair day

41. Passing a driving test42. Getting praise from your boss after working hard on something43. Getting spontaneous kiss or cuddle from your children44. Getting the answers right when watching a TV quiz45. Sleeping children46. Babies47. Swimming in the sea48. Waking up on a Saturday morning and realising it is the weekend49. Having a girlie/lads night out50. Being made a cup of tea

SEEING an old friend, hearing a song that reminds you of your past and getting into a pair of jeans you thought were too small are among the 50 things that make us smile, new research reveals.

𝚝𝚘𝚙 𝟻𝟶 𝚝𝚑𝚒𝚗𝚐𝚜 𝚝𝚑𝚊𝚝 𝚠𝚒𝚕𝚕 𝚖𝚊𝚔𝚎 𝚢𝚘𝚞 𝚜𝚖𝚒𝚕𝚎:)

Habit is the foundation of the routines that comprise the vast bulk of our everyday lives. When we are not disturbed, we live our practical lives without engaging in anything like a cautious assessment of what it is we are doing at any given moment. No conscious deliberation or reflection is required to brew morning coffee, or to catch the morning train to work. As the late philosopher Hubert Dreyfus said, habits are a part of our “everyday coping practices”.

Habits: Everyday Coping Practices?

In tune with this characterisation, philosophers of mind and cognitive scientists alike often conceive of habits as highly mechanistic and near-automatic responses to environmental cues that unfold outside of our deliberative control. This conception of habits as mindless and reflexive might seem intuitive when we recognise that they are often counterproductive to our capacity to pursue our goals and desires. For example, many of us may have recently found ourselves habitually reaching over to shake hands with people even though we know we should refrain from doing so in light of the pandemic.

… Or Mindless Reflexes?

However, even our most mundane habitual routines actually display a great deal of intelligence. Indeed, they are often intelligently context-sensitive and flexible in such a way as can support and structure our goals and projects.

The Intelligent Dimension Of Habits

Consider the example of driving the same route to work every morning. You might often find yourself wrapped up in thoughts about how your day will unfold, or how you might explain to your boss why you failed to complete some task, and yet you still easily navigate the roads that lead you to your destination.However, despite completing this task on something like autopilot, your drive will still be intelligently adjusted to situational intricacies, such as how fast or slow the driver in front of you is going, or when the traffic lights change.

Habits: An Intelligent Autopilot

In attempting to account for the intelligent dimension of habit, researchers have moved away from construing habits as unintelligent mechanisms and towards modelling them as a species of belief. The puzzle we face in clarifying the character of habits is to explain their intelligent dimension while also acknowledging that they can often work against our intelligence and lead us astray.

The Puzzle In Defining Habits

Great thinkers since before Aristotle have overwhelmingly tended to characterise humans as rational animals in virtue of our capacity to form and intelligently adjust our beliefs. On this view, constructing good habits is vital – but, once a habitual routine is established, it is not itself intelligent. However, if we are serious about attributing intelligence to our embodied interactions with the world, then our notion of how to construe human rationality will need to be revised, and profound questions will need to be raised as to our conceptions of nonhuman animal intelligence.

Who And What Is Intelligent?

Gilbert Ryle, in his seminal work The Concept of Mind (1949), emphatically denied that habits were intelligent. For him, habits are mere mindless mechanisms. Indeed, he explicitly contrasts habitual doings with intelligent and skilful behaviours, claiming that it “is of the essence of merely habitual practices that one performance is a replica of its predecessors”. A habit is simply an unintelligent and stupefied way of reacting to the world.

A Habit Is A Replication

In On Habit (2014), Clare Carlisle notes that this sort of characterisation of habit – as unintelligent and “a degradation of life, reducing spontaneity and vitality to mechanical routine” – has been held by many influential philosophers of the mind throughout history, including Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant and Henri Bergson. Even today, the researchers Susana Ramírez-Vizcaya and Tom Froese identify a prevalent notion of habit across several domains of the contemporary cognitive sciences that conceives of them as “rigid patterns of behaviour that are automatically activated by context cues”.

A Habit Is A Robotization

One inclined to agree with this mechanistic conception of habit as inherently unintelligent might argue that the puzzle referred above is simply ill-posed. On this analysis, any attempt to construe habits as intelligence-involving straightforwardly confuses habit and skill. An implication would be that our above purported examples of intelligent habits (such as the habit of driving the same route to the office every morning, which allows us to effectively reach our workplace, even when we are lost in irrelevant thoughts), insofar as they are intelligent, are not habits – they’re skills.

The Problem With The Mechanistic Conception

The mechanistic view of habits is misguided. Habits are not, despite what Ryle says, simply stupefied and rigid reactions to environmental triggers, or ‘single-track dispositions’ to respond to the world with highly stereotyped reflexes. To see this, we need only note that forging any clear-cut distinction between habit and skill is not even remotely intuitive or feasible. On one hand, many of our skills consist of habits. Skill acquisition in sports, for example, is often nothing but the process of cultivating a new motor habit through repetitive practice.

Skills Aren’t Habits. But Skills Often Consist Of Habits. 

On the other hand, habits often comprise skills. Consider the habit of whistling when you are bored. This is a considerably skilful act, which can in some cases constitute genuine musical expertise. For just these reasons, introducing a clear-cut distinction between skill and habit, such that habitual doings cannot, by definition, be skilled or intelligent, is wrongheaded.

Habits Aren’t Skills. But Habits Often Comprise Skills. 

In opposition to the mechanistic conception of habits, some, such as the philosopher Jason Stanley, advocate for an intellectualist conception, on which habits are intelligent because they are really a kind of ‘settled belief’ about ways of achieving certain goals.

The Mechanistic Conception Vs The Intellectualist Conception

An example: in my initial weeks at a new workplace, I will have developed a belief about how I could successfully get to the office. Through my daily commute, this belief gradually becomes entirely automatic and unconscious. At this stage, I do not need to consciously consider what route I should take to the office but am instead guided by an unconscious belief about how to successfully get there.

“The Best Way To Work”

As this unconscious belief becomes entrenched, it might also become recalcitrant to counterevidence. I might, for instance, accidentally take this route to the office even after I am informed and sincerely convinced that there is a more efficient route. According to intellectualists, a habit is nothing but a deeply entrenched belief of this form. Holding this view, we could preserve the traditional view of human rationality as dependent on belief.

“The Only Way To Work”

This intellectualist view of habits as a form of belief, however, also has serious problems in accounting for their intelligent aspect. Habits are, as our above examples show, often exquisitely context-sensitive. But if Stanley takes habitual doings to be intelligent only in virtue of being guided by unconscious beliefs, then he relies on the idea that the intelligent flexibility of habits depends on the flexibility and rapid updating of unconscious beliefs. Emphasising this flexibility conflicts with his claim that habits themselves are guided by stubborn and recalcitrant unconscious beliefs.

The Problem With The Intellectualist Conception

It is also unclear how unconscious neural processes can even involve beliefs (philosophers have tried in vain for decades to provide a satisfactory account of how they might). As such, if an alternative notion of habits can successfully explain their context-sensitivity without requiring a commitment to positing hidden, unconscious beliefs, then such an account would be more theoretically attractive.

The Need For An Alternative Conception

Both mechanical and intellectual conceptions of habit encounter significant difficulties in explaining how habits sustain intelligent behaviour. These conceptions have a common root problem, which is a failure to appreciate the pivotal role of perception that philosophers working in the phenomenological and pragmatist traditions have recognised. When we follow them in recognising the crucial role of perception in guiding our habitual doings, we can explain the intelligent aspect of habits while obviating any need to identify them as beliefs.

The Root Problem Of Both Conceptions

For Dreyfus, we are no less experts at our everyday habitual routines than Serena Williams is an expert at tennis (albeit what we accomplish might be substantially less impressive). The consequence of this, for him, is that our everyday habits will be guided by expert-level perception and intuition. For instance, many of us have now cultivated social distancing practices. By that measure, as we incorporate these practices into our everyday lives, we are able to proficiently maintain an appropriate distance automatically.

We Are Habit Experts

Dreyfus is correct to highlight the important role of perceptual skill in guiding our habitual doings, but his account should be revised in one crucial respect. For him, as we become experts at completing some everyday routine, the world increasingly draws us to act in one optimal, appropriate way. In other words, we will, as our everyday routines become engrained, come to perceive nothing other than the possibility of pursuing a singular optimal course of action for each situation. This renders Dreyfus’s view of habits too close to the mechanistic conception of habit that we rejected above.

(As) Experts, (We) Suffer From Narrow Expertise

The pragmatist philosopher John Dewey is instructive here. Dewey, like Dreyfus, construes habits as facilitating intelligent behaviour by shaping perception. However, he denies that, as we become experts at carrying out everyday routines, our habitual responses always become entirely automatic response patterns. Instead, for Dewey, the “more numerous our habits the wider the field of possible observation and foretelling. The more flexible they are, the more refined is perception in its discrimination and the more delicate the presentation evoked by imagination…”

Habits Are Extra Sense Organs

In other words, our habitual doings are intelligently adjusted to context precisely because we perceive the environment in which they have been cultivated in terms of the vast and discriminating habitual responses we might make to it. Habits, seen through this pragmatist lens, then, far from being blunt reflexes, amount to a treasure trove of possible responses to our situated environment, highly constrained by circumstance, but genuinely open to the world. Nor does Dewey deny that our thoughts will almost always be suffused by habit.

Habits Are Omni-Sacks

Contemporary philosophy of mind is positively replete with warnings that we ought not to fall into easy dichotomies between intelligent and voluntary processes on the one hand, and unintelligent and automatic processes on the other. Indeed, even psychologists such as Daniel Kahneman who have influentially advocated for dual-processing views on which the brain comprises two distinct ‘systems’ – one habitual, unconscious, and quick, and another slow, conscious, and reflective – have for years conceded that such a picture is far too simplistic.

We Ought Not To Fall Into Easy Dichotomies

One sure-fire way to cut right through this dichotomy is to note that, while habits can distort our goals, they can also be exquisitely context-sensitive. Accounting for this context-sensitivity will require acknowledging the pivotal role perceptual skills play in guiding our habitual doings. By recognising the flexible aspects of habits, we further distance ourselves from an outmoded view of intelligent action as one that’s always guided by appropriate intellectual apprehension of knowledgeable beliefs.

Habit And Intelligence Are Not Mutually Exclusive

Chains of habit are too light to be felt until they are too heavy to be broken.

A nail is driven out by another nail. Habit is overcome by habit.

Habit is necessary; it is the habit of having habits, of turning a trail into a rut, that must be incessantly fought against if one is to remain alive.

Habit is a second nature which prevents us from knowing the first, of which it has neither the cruelties nor the enchantments.

Yet habit - strange thing! what cannot habit accomplish?

“Habit is a second nature that destroys the first. But what is nature? Why is habit not natural? I am very much afraid that nature itself is only a first habit, just as habit is a second nature.” - Blaise Pascal

Rather than mindless mechanisms for routines, habits are a species of belief that display a great deal of intelligence

mindfulness

Mindfulness

habits

Habits

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Science & Nature

In Praise Of Habits – So Much More Than Mindless Reflexes

Every day, a new video goes “viral”, and an “infectious” idea starts spreading. Mental immunity is a psychological theory that is also known as cognitive immunology. With origins dating back 70 years, this field of research is based on the premise that not only is there an immune system for the body, but an immune system for the mind as well.People with a healthy mental immune system are more likely to detect misinformation. A strong cognitive immune system can also help spot bad ideas at an earlier stage, so you may avoid wasting time, energy or money.

 Protect Ourselves from Bad Ideas

Let’s explore the concept of cognitive immunology, together with a list of strategies you can employ to help strengthen your mental immune system.The concept of mental immunity was formulated by Professor Andy Norman, director of the Humanism Initiative at Carnegie Mellon University. Despite the field of cognitive immunology being in its infancy, mental immunity research has deep roots dating back to the 1950s. The mental immune system is believed to function in a similar way to the body’s physical immune system.

Cognitive Immunology

The purpose of the physical system of immune cells is to detect pathogens including bacteria and viruses, so that they can be eradicated from our blood stream and organ systems before they have a chance to cause damage. Similarly, a healthy mental immune system will detect harmful or incorrect information that enters our mind, so that it can be recognised as such and then promptly rejected.

The Process

In a paper about immunology’s theories of cognition, philosopher Alfred Tauber explained that developing an “immune self” requires us to actively distinguish between the self and the foreign, so that foreign information can be interrogated and potentially defended against.This way, the mental immune system sifts through ideas, information and other forms of external stimuli to identify, and therefore protect us from, the adverse outcomes associated with misinformation.

Developing an "Immune Self"

Both factual information and misinformation have the potential to spread through the population far faster than ever before. We have access to constant, real-time updates from online news platforms, as well as information shared via online magazines, social media, and unregulated websites. While factual information is a great asset, unreliable information and the inability to spot bad ideas may lead to poor decision making.

Information and Misinformation

Professor Sander van der Linden from the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge published a study which showed that the public could be inoculated against misinformation regarding climate change. In the study, the publics’ cognitive immunity to misinformation was reinforced when they were given a pre-emptive warning about politically motivated attempts to spread misinformation on the human causes of global warming. The results showed that this was an effective way to strengthen their immunity to false information.

Climate Change & Misinformation

In his 2021 book Mental Immunity, Professor Andy Norman explains that the immune systems of our minds can be strengthened against ideological corruption and mind parasites, which increases our capacity for critical thinking. This in turn helps us to spot and remove bad ideas before they can cause harm.Furthermore, developing greater cognitive flexibility allows us to change our minds faster when new, better-evidenced information is presented to us. In short, moving away from rigid thinking patterns improves our relationship with information and our resultant actions.

The Book "Mental Immunity"

You can increase your mental immunity by making your mind more resistant to misinformation, which will lead to better cognitive flexibility and decision making.To keep on using the same analogy, these strategies work in a similar way to vaccination: they support your mind in recognising the threat of bad ideas.1. Build awareness of misinformation. Misinformation is spread for a variety of reasons. It can be passed on innocently, especially when shared from person to person in a general conversation.

Strategies

However, research suggests that the spread of false content can also occur more deviously for political gain or polarisation, to generate income for media outlets, as a personal or industrial form of propaganda, or as a result of social media algorithms.Remember that misinformation is common, that fake news is designed to appear genuine, and train yourself to immediately interrogate the information or data you are presented with. This will help make your mind more resistant to bad ideas.

An Industrial Form of Propaganda

2. Develop healthy meta-beliefs. A meta-belief is a belief that one holds following a thorough reasoning process or cognitive interrogation to check the validity of the belief. In their 2020 paper, Gordon Pennycook and colleagues explained that “theories of belief should take into account what people believe about when and how beliefs and opinions should change — that is, meta-beliefs.”The team found that people who were politically liberal were more likely to believe that opinions and beliefs should change according to evidence.

Meta-Beliefs

Those who were religious, or held paranormal or conspiratorial beliefs, were less likely to agree that beliefs should change.Developing meta-beliefs strongly correlates with mental immunity. To strengthen your mental immune system, be prepared to assess and re-adjust previously held beliefs if new evidence comes to light. This way, your opinions are continuously being amended based on the latest evidence.

Meta-Beliefs & Mental Immunity

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In Praise Of Habits – So Much More Than Mindless Reflexes

How developing mental immunity can protect us from bad ideas

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